William the Conqueror: England's first Norman King

Uncertain Beginnings

The birth of William the Conqueror

William the Conqueror was born in 1027 at Falaise Castle in Normandy, in what is now northern France. His was the son of Robert ‘the Magnificent’ Duke of Normandy, and a woman called Herleva.

Herleva’s origins are uncertain. Some claimed she was a woman in Robert’s household, others described her as the daughter of an undertaker or tanner. It is unlikely Robert and Herleva were married; William was often described as bastardus (meaning ‘a bastard’) by non-Norman contemporaries in reference to his illegitimate origins.

The Dukes of Normandy were of Viking descent and famed for being skilled warriors. This was just as well, because they lived in violent times. Duke Robert faced rebellion from his own relatives, and was often at war with his neighbours in Brittany and Bellême.

Robert died in 1035 in Nicea, in present-day Turkey, while travelling back from a pilgrimage - but not before he made young William his formal heir.

William becomes Duke of Normandy

William’s early years as Duke of Normandy were dangerous; he was likely not yet 10 years old and therefore was too young to rule. Two of his guardians were killed and for a time he had to hide in the homes of his poor tenants in fear for his safety.

In about 1042, William came of age and began to rule in his own right, but he still faced challenges to his Dukedom. He had to win many battles to maintain Normandy, even fighting against his own cousin Gui, Count of Brionne.

Many of his enemies built unlicensed castles which made them hard to control. The lessons William learned at this time would have profound consequences for the English in the future.

Marriage to Matilda of Flanders and children

William married Matilda of Flanders in about 1050. Matilda was from an incredibly powerful family and their marriage did much to secure William’s power and position in Normandy.

William and Matilda had at least nine children, including four known sons and at least five daughters. Records for their lives are inconsistent, but they likely included:

• Robert (called Curthose) was William’s heir to the Dukedom of Normandy
• Richard, who died in a hunting incident in the New Forest
• William (called Rufus), the future William II of England 
• Henry, the future Henry I of England
• Cecily, who became Abbess of the Abbey of Ste Trinité, in Caen
• Adelida, who perhaps was betrothed to Harold Godwinson, but later became a nun 
• Matilda, whose name is known only from a reference in the Domesday Book
• Constance, Duchess of Brittany, who was said to have been charitable and peaceful
• Adela, Countess of Blois, who was an important patron of literature
• Agatha is known only from a mention in a single chronicle and disputed by historians

William the warrior

Long before William became ‘the Conqueror’ of England, he was an effective warrior and agile politician. By 1063, he had secured both his position in Normandy and the succession of the county of Maine for himself and his eldest son, Robert.

Before long, William had set his sights on a much greater prize – England, a land famed for its wealth and rich farmland.

Enter Harold Godwinson, the new King of England

On the English throne for most of William’s life was Edward the Confessor, a king who became renowned for his piety and would one day be made a saint. Edwards’ death on 5 January 1066 would mark the start of one of the most tumultuous periods in English history – and would change William’s life.

Edward had no children, and therefore no clear heir, and he was succeeded on the throne by Harold Godwinson, the powerful and wealthy Earl of Wessex.

Harold had fallen out with the old King on several occasions and faced immediate challenges to his rule. William and several Norman chroniclers stated Edward had promised the throne to him, and that Harold had sworn to uphold his succession.

Regardless, Harold was crowned King of England in 1066. He may have been the first king crowned in Westminster Abbey, although it was not recorded. If William wanted the English throne, he would have to take it by force.

William invades

On the night of 27-28 September, William crossed the channel and invaded England. Assembling men and building a fleet, he was ready by July 1066, but delayed. He may have been waiting for better weather, approval from the Church in Rome for his controversial plan, or simply the right moment to strike.

William and his Norman army eventually crossed the channel into England - possibly with the Church’s permission. They arrived at Pevensey in the south of England before dawn and headed for nearby Hastings. But the English were not waiting.

The Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings took place on 13 October 1066. Although the result of the battle is well known, what exactly happened on the day has been hotly debated.

Harold had no doubt hoped to surprise the Normans by speed, but his army was exhausted. Harold’s troops were positioned in a steep ridge south of some woods and had no choice but to face the Normans at a time which suited them.

William had a force of about 7,000 men, the English perhaps a few more. The battle lasted all day and the armies seemed evenly matched. Although the English were tired from their march, they had the high ground, and the Normans had to advance up a steep incline. William seems to have used his cavalry to good effect and one more false retreat disrupted the English defences.

The English lacked archers which would have been useful for hindering the Norman advances. By contrast, the Normans had archers, and used them well – this proved decisive.

Towards the end of a day of fighting, King Harold was struck by an arrow and died. The death of their leader was the finishing blow to the exhausted English army. William had won the day.

The new King William I of England

With William at their head, the Normans advanced through south-east England to claim his new land. They secured Dover, Canterbury, and Winchester, but London remained defiant. The city declared Edgar Ætheling - the last surviving male member of the ancient royal house of Wessex - as their king, but William consolidated his position with further fighting. By late December, he was ready to be crowned.

The Conquest secured

In the weeks following William’s coronation, more English earls surrendered to their new King. William made peace with the city of London and confirmed their privileges. In March 1067 he returned to Normandy, probably leaving his brother Bishop Odo and other leading Normans in charge.

In the following years, many Normans entered England hoping for land and money. English earls, who had hoped to retain their status, rebelled in retaliation several times. However, resistance proved futile and by the time the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086 almost all the land in England was controlled by the Normans.

A new castle in London

William I commissions the White Tower

An important strategy for consolidating Norman power was the building of castles. Great stone keeps were common in Normandy but a new addition to the English landscape. These imposing buildings allowed the Normans to control the surrounding lands protected from any hostile neighbours.

The most famous and symbolic of these castles was the Tower of London. This imposing castle began around the year 1078. It was built using stone imported from Caen in France, using English labour. It took about 20 years to build and would have dominated the London skyline.

Explore the White Tower

Discover William I's White Tower at the heart of the Tower of London, in this 360-degree image created in partnership with Google Arts & Culture.

Cruelty and control

The notorious Harrying of the North

In 1069 England was invaded by a large Danish army accompanied by Edgar Ætheling and many English rebels. William marched north to fight the Danes who refused to meet him in battle.

William responded by moving north into Northumbria, devastating the countryside as he went. This tactic denied his enemies supplies, and by the spring they agreed to leave.

William’s ruthless actions rendered the north of England temporarily uninhabitable and destroyed any chance of further rebellions. This period is now known as the notorious Harrying of the North.

Not long after, William was crowned once more in Winchester, by cardinals sent from Rome – a symbolic consolidation of his power. William faced several rebellions in England and France which he met with his accustomed merciless energy. However, the last 10 years of his reign were more testing still.

Rebellions, family feuds and the death of a Queen

William I’s testing last years

William the Conqueror spent most of the last 10 years of his life in Normandy and France. In 1076, while facing a rebellion of English and French earls he was defeated in battle by the King of France. This was the first major defeat of his career.

Not long after he also fell out with his eldest son Robert, perhaps because he wanted to be given more power and authority in Normandy. In a winter skirmish in 1078/9, William was even wounded by Robert and had to retreat to Rouen. By 1080 they had reconciled but relations between the father and son were often fraught.

During his final years, William faced further rebellions in Maine and threats of Danish invasions of England.

The death of Matilda of Flanders

William’s final years were made worse by the death of Queen Matilda in 1083. Her absence must have left a void in the King’s life; she was crucial in organising William’s household and representing him when he was away.

The King leaves England

In autumn 1086, William left England for the last time, carrying large sums of money raised by taxation. He was once more travelling to counter raids into his lands, this time led by the King of France.

When William arrived, he not only secured his lands but tried to expand into the neighbouring French county of the Vexin, claiming he had been granted them by the French King’s father.

The death of a Conqueror

How did William the Conqueror die?

William I died on 9 September 1087 after being taken ill during the sack of the French town of Mantes. Some sources say he was overcome by the heat, others that the pommel of his saddle pierced his stomach as he jumped a ditch. He was taken back to Rouen and then the nearby priory of St Gervase.

William I’s body was transported to Caen where he was buried in the abbey church of St Étienne which he had founded.

Who succeeded William the Conqueror?

William the Conqueror was succeeded as King of England by his second surviving son William Rufus, who became William II. Richard had met an untimely death in a hunting accident in the New Forest, so William was next in line. His third surviving son Henry would later become Henry I, King of England. William was succeeded as Duke of Normandy by his eldest son, Robert Curthose.

Legacy

How should we remember William ‘the Conqueror’?

William I was an able King and leader. He recognised that an effective ruler needed to be more than just a mighty warrior; he used propaganda, diplomacy, and careful planning to achieve his ambitious goals.

William’s lands on both sides of the channel meant that he was almost constantly facing rebellions and invasions. Only his near-superhuman levels of energy and terrible ruthlessness enabled him to maintain his possessions.

William was criticised for his greed and cruelty. While he was not unique in using violence and destruction to maintain control of his lands, the scale of his actions made them stand out.

William displayed a strong personal religion and developed a close relationship with the Church which he used to great advantage. William was committed to maintaining justice which was an essential role of medieval kingship. He was a great builder and monuments like the Tower of London remain testament to his remarkable life.