Robert Dudley: Prisoner, favourite and Earl of Leicester

Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, was a courtier and royal favourite of Queen Elizabeth I. Dudley navigated scandal for most of his life. He was imprisoned at the Tower of London by Mary I and long rumoured to be Elizabeth’s lover. Dudley’s first wife, Amy Robsart, died in mysterious circumstances and he secretly married his second, Lettice Knollys, to avoid the Queen’s fury.

However, Dudley was also Elizabeth’s trusted confidante who enjoyed political influence at court and abroad. A soldier, statesman, prominent patron and extravagant host, he endures as a charismatic and controversial figure at the heart of the Elizabethan era.

Header image: The earliest known portrait of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, c1560-65 (detail). © Wallace Collection, London, UK / Bridgeman Images

Early life and family

Robert Dudley was born on 24 June 1532/33. No exact record of his birth survives, meaning this date is based on Robert's later correspondence and a portrait dated 1576 (which gave his age as 44). The fifth son of Jane Guilford and John Dudley, Robert was one of 13 children – seven of whom survived to adulthood.

Robert was close to his family. He and his siblings shared many prominent tutors, including writer Roger Ascham, who later teased Robert for giving up his talent for Latin in favour of mathematics. Dudley maintained his interest in maths, engineering and navigation for the rest of his life.

Robert’s father was a powerful courtier who served under Henry VIII and Edward VI. John Dudley was a savvy political figure who emerged as leader of the Privy Council (the monarch’s top officials) after the fall of Edward VI's uncle. He was named Duke of Northumberland in 1551.

Robert and Elizabeth: childhood sweethearts?

Robert Dudley and Elizabeth I were childhood friends. We don’t know when they first met each other, though some suggest Dudley was part of her half-brother Edward's household.

Robert later mentioned that ‘they had first become friends before [Elizabeth] was eight years old’.

Robert Dudley’s marriage and early career

On 4 June 1550, Robert Dudley married Amy Robsart, the only child of Elizabeth Scott and Sir John Robsart — an important Norfolk landowner. Often described as a love match, the couple probably met when Dudley accompanied his father to Norfolk to put down Kett’s Rebellion in 1549, during the reign of Edward VI.

Robert was knighted in 1550 and, as the son of the most powerful man in England, he enjoyed many important positions at court. However, his family’s fortunes were about to be shaken to their core.

The 'Nine Day' Queen – The Dudleys and Lady Jane Grey

Succession crisis

In January 1553, the 15-year-old Edward VI fell ill. From then on, his health remained volatile and many worried about who would succeed him if he died without an heir.

Edward wanted his successor to be both male and Protestant. He disinherited his half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth and instead favoured male heirs of his cousin, Lady Frances Grey. However, as his health worsened, Edward named Frances’s daughter, Lady Jane Grey, as his successor.

Jane and Guilford’s marriage

Edward’s decision was very beneficial for Robert’s family. Earlier that year, John Dudley had arranged marriage between Jane Grey and his son Guilford – Robert's younger brother. Everything rested on the couple inheriting the English throne.

Long live the Queen

Edward VI died on 6 July 1553 and Robert’s father prepared to crown Lady Jane Grey as queen. Meanwhile, Robert raced to Hunsdon to secure the Lady Mary – Henry VIII's eldest surviving child and the most serious threat to Jane’s throne.

Robert’s father instructed him to bring Mary to court. However, she was already long gone, and despite following in pursuit Robert was outnumbered by her supporters. Mary soon wrote to the Privy Council and demanded to be crowned as queen.

The Dudleys are defeated

Whilst Robert sat tight at King’s Lynn, John Dudley attempted to raise an army to capture Mary the would-be queen. However, overwhelming support for Mary forced Robert’s father to retreat.

The Privy Council swung in Mary’s favour, and she was proclaimed Queen on 19 July 1553. Robert, his father and his brothers were imprisoned at the Tower of London.

Robert Dudley is imprisoned at the Tower of London

Robert Dudley was brought to the Tower of London on 26 July 1553. Technically, Robert had only carried out the orders of the Privy Council and was not part of the army raised to capture Mary. However, he was charged with treason and sentenced to death.

Robert’s father pleaded for the lives of his sons, arguing that they were only obeying him and did not rebel ‘of their own free wills’. John Dudley was executed on Tower Hill on 22 August 1553. His son Guilford and Lady Jane Grey were executed in 1554. However, Mary allowed Robert and his surviving brothers to remain imprisoned at the Tower.

Inside the Tower

The Dudleys were probably kept inside the Beauchamp Tower. 

In March 1554, Elizabeth was also imprisoned at the Tower of London under suspicion during the Wyatt Rebellion. This short period where Robert and Elizabeth were both prisoners has encouraged a lot of speculation. However, Elizabeth was under tight restrictions, making it unlikely the pair spent much (if any) time together.

Dudley is released from the Tower

Robert was probably released from the Tower of London in October 1554. He was officially pardoned in 1555, but his family were treated with suspicion.

Still seen as a threat, the Dudleys were ordered to leave London during Mary’s confinement, in which she was secluded from court. It was later discovered that Mary was not pregnant. Robert also remained attained, meaning he had to forfeit his lands and rights (though he was allowed to inherit his father-in-law’s estate).

However, the Dudleys were still given a chance to prove their allegiance. In 1557, Mary's husband Philip sent troops to war in France, and Robert and his brothers joined them.

Robert served as Master of Ordnance, responsible for overseeing royal weaponry and military. Parliament removed the attainder on the surviving Dudleys in 1558, probably as reward for their loyalty – though they were still not entitled to their father’s lands.

Elizabeth I becomes Queen

Mary I died on 17 November 1558, leaving her half-sister Elizabeth to inherit the throne. Robert Dudley rushed to join the new Queen at Hatfield House and was soon appointed as Master of Horse – one of the most important positions in the royal household.

Present at Elizabeth’s early council meetings, Robert also took time to ride with his Queen in Hatfield’s grounds before she departed for London. The promotion to Master of Horse was the first of many royal gifts.

By the end of the year Elizabeth granted Dudley his father’s former lands at Kew, which later became the site of Kew Palace.

'Sweet Robin': The Queen’s favourite

Robert Dudley is best known as Elizabeth I’s 'favourite'. Bonded by their long acquaintance and perhaps their shared experience as prisoners under Mary, the pair had a tender and emotionally dependent relationship. This closeness was defined by Dudley’s almost constant presence at court.

Dudley was a handsome and charismatic courtier who shared Elizabeth’s sense of humour as well as her love of dancing, hunting and horse riding. The Queen showered Dudley with affection, calling him her ‘bonny sweet Robin’. His playful nickname, 'Eyes' was noted in their letters with symbols from Latin script that looked like eyes ('ôô').

But no matter their relationship, there was one important factor that prevented the pair getting any closer — Dudley was already married.

The death of Amy Robsart

Scandal on the staircase

Amy Robsart did not follow her husband to the royal court. Though Dudley visited his wife and sent her gifts, the couple had grown apart. This arrangement no doubt suited the Queen, since she got Robert all to herself. Amy spent much of her time visiting friends, managing her household and purchasing fine clothes.

On 8 September 1560, Amy Robsart was found dead at Cumnor Place, Oxfordshire. Having sent her staff away to Abingdon Fair, she was discovered at the bottom of a staircase with a broken neck. She was 28 years old. 

Suspicion and speculation

News reached Dudley and the court at Windsor Castle the next day. Amy’s death had no witnesses, but suspicion soon fell on her absent but ambitious husband.

Historians still debate what caused the death of Amy Robsart. Ambassadors’ reports suggest she was terminally ill, making her vulnerable to injury, while others speculate that she may have taken her own life.

In 1561, the coroner ruled Amy’s death an accident. However, suspicion haunted Robert Dudley for the rest of his life. Rumours that he planned to kill Amy were whispered even before 1560. Later writings such as Leicester’s Commonwealth (1584) immortalised the story that Dudley arranged his wife’s murder. 

Aftermath

After Amy's death, Robert Dudley remained the Queen’s affectionate favourite. However, the scandal became infamous at court and abroad. No matter the Queen’s intentions, marrying Dudley would now be a potential PR disaster.

Did Elizabeth I want to marry Robert Dudley?

Robert Dudley was deeply attached to Elizabeth I. After Amy Robsart's death, he remained reluctant to re-marry for many years in case it compromised his position as her favourite and potential suitor. However, the Queen continued to avoid the subject.

Many speculated that Elizabeth I and Robert Dudley were lovers, but Elizabeth always denied this rumour. Whilst critically ill with smallpox at Hampton Court in 1562, Elizabeth even swore that ‘nothing unseemly ever passed between them’. This was a very serious vow to make on what she thought was her deathbed.

Nonetheless, the Queen’s marriage was a hot topic at court. Many speculated that Elizabeth might choose Dudley as her husband. Some favoured an English match and the Queen’s lifelong friend could have been a good fit to secure the succession.

However, Dudley was far below Elizabeth in rank and his family’s treason still soured his reputation. For the Queen, marrying abroad had many political advantages. And, as with all potential partners, she was reluctant to lose her independence.

How much influence did Dudley have at court?

Dudley was Elizabeth's trusted confidante and enjoyed political power even before he joined the Privy Council in 1562. During her illness at Hampton Court Palace in the same year, the Queen allegedly ordered that Dudley be made protector of the realm in the event of her death. This would have come complete with a title and £20,000 a year.

Robert worked closely with William Cecil, Elizabeth’s Secretary of State and Lord High Treasurer. However, the two men were often at odds over important issues such as foreign diplomacy and the Queen’s marriage candidates. As a committed Protestant, Robert also advocated for religious non-conformists known as ‘puritans’.

The most unpopular man in England?

As a royal favourite, Robert Dudley attracted jealously, criticism and even attempts on his life. In 1559, as the Queen celebrated her birthday at Hampton Court Palace, a failed plot was uncovered to poison both her and Dudley at a banquet — one of many perils that came with sitting so close to the throne.

Much of Dudley’s legacy was shaped by Leicester’s Commonwealth, the same book that had linked him with Amy Robsart’s death. Part of a long tradition of blaming national problems on corrupt councillors, the book accused Dudley of blocking the Queen’s marriages and hoarding power for himself. It also charged Dudley not only with the death of Amy Robsart, but the husbands of his future lovers.

Elizabeth and the Privy Council attempted to suppress the book. One proclamation named it, 'the most malicious, false and slanderous, and such as none but the devil himself could deem to be true'.

Robert Dudley as a patron

As a prominent courtier, Dudley became a prolific patron of artists and scholars. He served as Chancellor of Oxford University and helped revive the university press.

He sponsored a company of actors known as ‘Leicester’s Men’, commissioned artists like Nicholas Hilliard and amassed a vast collection of books and maps.

Dudley invested heavily in maritime and trade expeditions, including those carried out by Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher and John Hawkins. These expeditions were key in establishing English colonial activity in West Africa and North America, including the transatlantic trade of enslaved people.

Love triangles

Robert Dudley and Mary, Queen of Scots

In 1563, Elizabeth I suggested that Robert Dudley marry Mary, Queen of Scots (so long as the couple lived with her at court).

Mary was considered widely to be the strongest candidate to succeed the English throne, and by marrying her to Dudley perhaps the Queen could prevent Scotland from forming closer ties to Catholic powers abroad. 

Dudley becomes Earl of Leicester

In 1564, Dudley was named Earl of Leicester and Baron of Denbigh – probably to become more acceptable to the Scottish Queen. Nonetheless, both Mary and Robert were against the marriage, and nothing came of the match.

Dudley and Sheffield

In the 1570s Dudley began an affair with widowed noblewoman Douglas Sheffield, who later claimed that they married in secret. This marriage was never recognised, though the couple did have a child named Robert Dudley, who was acknowledged by the elder Robert as his ‘base son’. Dudley was fond of his boy and often made trips to see him.

Kenilworth: one last proposal?

In 1563, Elizabeth I granted the vast estate of Kenilworth Castle to her treasured favourite. Dudley soon transformed it into a luxurious pleasure house complete with stunning gardens and magnificent architecture. This included ‘Leicester’s Building’ – built exclusively for the Queen.

Elizabeth visited Kenilworth four times during her reign, but her longest and most famous stay took place over 19 days in 1575. Dudley hosted a series of elaborate and expensive entertainments, including luxurious feasts, exhilarating hunts and fireworks that could be heard 20 miles away.

Probably the most extravagant event ever organised in Elizabeth’s reign, Elizabeth's stay at Kenilworth was reported across Europe and commemorated by multiple pamphlets.

Was the spectacle Dudley’s last attempt to propose? The final masque did seem to urge the Queen to marry, though bad weather meant it was never performed. However, others speculate that Dudley simply wanted to thank Elizabeth for her generosity, or perhaps convince her to let him seek companionship elsewhere.

The Queen’s wrath: Dudley marries Lettice Knollys

On 21 September 1578, Robert Dudley married Lettice Knollys, dowager Countess of Essex. Lettice was a recent widow and Elizabeth’s cousin. She also possessed a striking resemblance to the Queen.

Rumours about Lettice and Dudley date back to 1575. The couple eventually married in secret, without Elizabeth’s permission – possibly because Lettice was pregnant. 

However, Dudley couldn’t hide from Elizabeth forever. When the Queen found out about the match, she was furious and banned Lettice from court. Elizabeth did eventually forgive her favourite, but it took time for Robert to regain the intimacy he once shared with the Queen.

Despite the scandal, Dudley and Lettice were a happy couple. The marriage produced one son, who died suddenly in infancy. However, Dudley became close with his new stepchildren, including future royal favourite and Tower prisoner Robert Devereux.

Governor-General

In 1585, Elizabeth reluctantly sent Dudley to the United Provinces (the modern-day Netherlands) to support the Dutch Revolt. Departing with 7,000 English troops, he was ordered to advise and carefully assist the Protestant rebels against Catholic Spain.

However, Dudley was a proud protestant with personal interests in Dutch independence. In January 1586, he accepted the title of Governor-General of the United Provinces. Though he claimed it was in Elizabeth’s best interests, this appointment went against direct orders not to provoke the Spanish.

The Queen was enraged. Although she eventually recognised his new role, her hesitation undermined Dudley’s authority and the campaign turned out to be an expensive, ill-managed shambles. Spain regained most of the Netherlands and Dudley was recalled to England in 1587.

The Spanish Armada

Robert Dudley and Elizabeth I at Tilbury

In 1588, the Spanish Armada was sighted off the English Coast – a naval invasion force deployed to overthrow Elizabeth I. Dudley was named ‘Lieutenant and Captain-General of the Queen’s Armies and Companies’ and tasked with organising the defence of London.

On 3 August 1588, Robert wrote to his Queen to reassure her that the soldiers were in good order and that ‘God fighteth for you and your enemies falleth before you’. He peppered the letter with the symbol for his nickname, 'Eyes'.

Soon after this letter Dudley arranged Elizabeth’s iconic visit to the army camped at Tilbury, by the River Thames in the east of England. He stage-managed a trip to review the troops, and rode proudly behind his Queen as she delivered her most famous speech on 9 August 1588.

How did Robert Dudley die?

Robert Dudley died on 4 September 1588, aged 56, probably from malaria or cancer. His health had deteriorated since his visit to the Netherlands. After Tilbury disbanded, he had hoped to recover at the baths in Buxton, but died suddenly at Cornbury Park in Oxfordshire.

Elizabeth was devastated. Upon hearing the news, the Queen barricaded herself in her rooms. She would treasure his final letter for the rest of her life.

Where is Robert Dudley buried?

Robert Dudley was buried at Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick on 10 October 1588. In 1634, he was joined by his wife Lettice Knollys, who died aged 91.

Legacy

No one knew the highs and lows of the Tudor court quite like Robert Dudley. As a young man he stood charged with treason and was imprisoned at the Tower of London. However, he also enjoyed an extraordinary intimacy with one of England’s most famous Queens.

Dudley’s legacy has been defined by rumour and scandal - immortalised by the writings of his enemies. Yet he was also an influential politician and prominent patron whose delights at Kenilworth Castle sparkled with all the luxury of the Elizabethan age.

Though others would follow him in gaining Elizabeth’s affection, including his stepson Robert Devereux, Dudley stands out as the Queen’s longest and perhaps most treasured royal favourite.